System and method for a distributed database

ABSTRACT

A system and method for a distributed database that is consistent but non-blocking. This distributed database, also referred to as a datastore, has a number of desirable features. Without wishing to be limited by a closed list, these features include but are not limited to: providing strong, ANSI SQL-compatible consistency guarantees; being distributable across multiple computers, data centers and even geographical locations; having a resilient, fault-tolerant architecture, where even failures of multiple different data centers can allow the operation of the datastore to continue seamlessly, depending on the configuration.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention, in at least some embodiments, relates to a systemand method for a distributed database, and in particular, to such adistributed database that is consistent but non-blocking.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Currently available database systems operating through blockingtransactions; that is, by only permitting one transaction at a time forreading or writing specific data. However, this blocking is slow andinefficient, and reduces scalability of the database system.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention overcomes the drawbacks of the background art byproviding a system and method for a distributed database that isconsistent but non-blocking. This distributed database, also referred toas a datastore, has a number of desirable features. Without wishing tobe limited by a closed list, these features include but are not limitedto: providing strong, ANSI SQL-compatible consistency guarantees; beingdistributable across multiple computers, data centers and evengeographical locations; having a resilient, fault-tolerant architecture,where even failures of multiple different data centers can allow theoperation of the datastore to continue seamlessly, depending on theconfiguration.

This is presented through the idea that sets of resulting data frommultiple computers do not necessarily have to be consistent immediately,but that they can be filtered before the results are presented to theclient. When looked at this way, the problem can be reduced to makingsure that the filtering algorithm references an atomic event which canbe deterministically compared to others, and it will result in the sameanswer anywhere in the system.

According to at least some embodiments, the system and method maycomprise a fully optimistic, lockless conflict resolution mechanism andwrite process, which allows the results of write operations (potentiallywriting to multiple computers) to be exposed atomically to readers.

According to at least some embodiments, the system and method maycomprise an architecture where the internal state of each computer canbe reconstructed from the same ordered set of inputs. This allows thewhole system (which is the sum of these computers) to be reliablydistributed, persisted and generally be made more resilient.

This is different from current systems, where writes either use someform of two-phase commit algorithm (which are inherently blocking) orlack transaction ordering semantics and thus are unable to providestrong consistency guarantees.

In other words: in current database systems, the internal state isprotected by certain mechanisms, so that writes and reads can befinished according to their required consistency guarantees. Bycontrast, for at least some embodiments of the system of the presentinvention, the internal state of a computer is considered to be theresult of an ordered list of input-messages. This means that twocomputers will always hold the same internal state when this list isconsumed by both. This feature means that there can be no raceconditions or other sources of ambiguity in the system, which mandatesthat computers only communicate with each other using asynchronousmethods (since race conditions are inherently non-deterministic).

Preferably, the system comprises a distributed, linearly scalable andstrongly consistent, SQL-compatible datastore. Without wishing to belimited by a closed list, further desirable features of the systeminclude being distributed, linearly scalable, and strongly consistent.

According to at least some embodiments, there is provided a system whereelements of different ordered sets are associated with each other, andfrom which association an ordering between elements of these sets can beestablished. Such a system enables a distributed clock to be used as areference to compare different pieces of information (that is, items orunits of data) throughout the system.

These terms are defined as follows. Distributed: The system maintainsits information on multiple computers.

Linearly scalable: If additional computers are introduced into thesystem, its capacity will roughly increase by the ratio of the totalcapacity of the new computers compared to the total sum of all capacityof the computers utilised in the system before they were added. Forexample, if the system used 100 computers previously and 10 newcomputers are introduced, capacity will grow by about 10%.

Strongly consistent: A global ordering exists between each piece ofinformation. The order between these is referred to as “earlier,”“later” or “at the same time.” The information implementing thisordering is called time. The system will only return results whichcontain all relevant information introduced earlier or at the same timecompared to a chosen point in time, and does not contain any informationintroduced later than this time.

Implementation of the apparatuses, devices, methods, and systems of thepresent disclosure involve performing or completing specific selectedtasks or steps manually, automatically, or a combination thereof.Specifically, several selected steps can be implemented by hardware orby software on an operating system, of a firmware, and/or a combinationthereof. For example, as hardware, selected steps of at least someembodiments of the disclosure can be implemented as a chip or circuit(e.g., ASIC). As software, selected steps of at least some embodimentsof the disclosure can be performed as a number of software instructionsbeing executed by a computer (e.g., a processor of the computer) usingan operating system. In any case, selected steps of methods of at leastsome embodiments of the disclosure can be described as being performedby a processor, such as a computing platform for executing a pluralityof instructions.

Software (e.g., an application, computer instructions) which isconfigured to perform (or cause to be performed) specific functionalitymay also be referred to as a “module” for performing that functionality,and also may be referred to a “processor” for performing suchfunctionality. Thus, processor, according to some embodiments, may be ahardware component, or, according to some embodiments, a softwarecomponent.

Further to this end, in some embodiments: a processor may also bereferred to as a module; in some embodiments, a processor may compriseone or more modules; in some embodiments, a module may comprise computerinstructions—which can be a set of instructions, an application,software—which are operable on a computational device (e.g., aprocessor) to cause the computational device to conduct and/or achieveone or more specific functionality. Furthermore, the phrase “abstractionlayer” or “abstraction interface,” as used with some embodiments, canrefer to computer instructions (which can be a set of instructions, anapplication, software) which are operable on a computational device (asnoted, e.g., a processor) to cause the computational device to conductand/or achieve one or more specific functionality. The abstraction layermay also be a circuit (e.g., an ASIC) to conduct and/or achieve one ormore specific functionality. Thus, for some embodiments, and claimswhich correspond to such embodiments, the noted feature/functionalitycan be described/claimed in a number of ways (e.g., abstraction layer,computational device, processor, module, software, application, computerinstructions, and the like).

Some embodiments are described concerning a “computer,” a “computernetwork,” and/or a “computer operational on a computer network.” It isnoted that any device featuring a processor (which may be referred to as“data processor”; “pre-processor” may also be referred to as“processor”) and the ability to execute one or more instructions may bedescribed as a computer, a computational device, and a processor (e.g.,see above), including but not limited to a personal computer (PC), aserver, a cellular telephone, an IP telephone, a smart phone, a PDA(personal digital assistant), a thin client, a mobile communicationdevice, a smart watch, head mounted display or other wearable that isable to communicate externally, a virtual or cloud based processor, apager, and/or a similar device. Two or more of such devices incommunication with each other may be a “computer network.”

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention is herein described, by way of example only, withreference to the accompanying drawings. With specific reference now tothe drawings in detail, it is stressed that the particulars shown are byway of example and for purposes of illustrative discussion of thepreferred embodiments of the present invention only, and are presentedin order to provide what is believed to be the most useful and readilyunderstood description of the principles and conceptual aspects of theinvention. In this regard, no attempt is made to show structural detailsof the invention in more detail than is necessary for a fundamentalunderstanding of the invention, the description taken with the drawingsmaking apparent to those skilled in the art how the several forms of theinvention may be embodied in practice. In the drawings:

FIGS. 1A and 1B relate to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limitingsystem for a distributed database according to at least some embodimentsof the present invention;

FIGS. 1C-1F relate to exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flows for adistributed database according to at least some embodiments of thepresent invention;

FIG. 2 relates to another exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting systemfor a distributed database according to at least some embodiments of thepresent invention;

FIG. 3 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow for around of token messages according to at least some embodiments of thepresent invention;

FIG. 4 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow for aclosure process according to at least some embodiments of the presentinvention;

FIG. 5 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow for aread/write process according to at least some embodiments of the presentinvention;

FIG. 6 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow forcreating a variant according to at least some embodiments of the presentinvention;

FIG. 7 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow forselecting a correct version according to at least some embodiments ofthe present invention;

FIG. 8 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow forhandling clashing transactions according to at least some embodiments ofthe present invention; and

FIG. 9 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow for amessage process according to at least some embodiments of the presentinvention.

DESCRIPTION OF AT LEAST SOME EMBODIMENTS

Turning now to the drawings, FIGS. 1A and 1B relate to an exemplary,illustrative, non-limiting system for a distributed database accordingto at least some embodiments of the present invention. As shown withregard to FIG. 1A, a system 100 features a plurality of servers 108,shown as servers A, B and C for the sake of illustration only andwithout any intention of being limiting. Each server 108 features a DMS(database management service) 110, also shown as DMS A, B and C for thesake of illustration only and without any intention of being limiting.Each server 108 also features a clock 112, also shown as clocks A, B andC for the sake of illustration only and without any intention of beinglimiting.

Each server 108 is in communication with at least one user computer 102,shown as user computers 1 and 2 for the sake of illustration only andwithout any intention of being limiting. Each user computer 102 operatesa client 104, shown as clients 1 and 2 for the sake of illustration onlyand without any intention of being limiting. Client 104 is able tocommunicate with at least one DMS 110 for reading to and writing fromthe database system.

FIG. 1B shows the system with regard to a root 124, which is the parentfor a plurality of groups 122 in a system 120. Groups 122 are shown asgroups A, B and C for the sake of illustration only and without anyintention of being limiting. Each group 122 features a plurality ofservers 108, labeled according to their group membership, again for thesake of illustration only and without any intention of being limiting.DMS 110 and clock 112 are not shown for the sake of clarity. It isassumed that root 124 also has a clock (not shown).

FIGS. 1A and 1B are now described together. FIGS. 1A and 1B togethershow an implementation that supports a distributable hierarchical clock.Its goal is to allow computers whose data are closely correlated to havea fast and efficient information exchange mechanism and still allow fora system which could potentially be grown to a global scale in whicheven remote computers could participate in transactions with strongconsistency guarantees and relatively quick response times.

The way these “clocks” are arranged is indifferent from the perspectiveof the specification. Each clock could be hosted on a specific computer,as shown with regard to FIGS. 1A and 1B, or the clocks could bedistributed even further. According to at least some embodiments, astrong ordering can be drawn up between values assumed by a set ofdistributed clocks by establishing an algorithm which is capable ofdoing so. Furthermore, such a strong ordering preferably includes thefeature that elements of different ordered sets are associated with eachother, and from which association an ordering between elements of thesesets can be established. Such a system enables a distributed clock to beused as a reference to compare different pieces of information (that is,items or units of data) throughout the system.

Consider a number of computers which send packets of information calledclock token-messages between each other in a circle. A set of computerssuch as this is called a group (see for example FIG. 1B, groups 122).The message contains a natural number which is incremented by one byeach computer before passing it on to the next in the chain. In such asetup each computer (as long as it knows its position in the chain)knows which numbers it will receive and which numbers it will send on.The information which is unknown to the computers is the time which willelapse between two token-messages. Since the clock itself is composed ofall the participating computers, the group clock is essentiallysynonymous with the group. Furthermore, each group having its own clockenables the system to operate a distributed clock. The only distinctionis a fine one, in that when the group clock is mentioned, a specificability of the group to create versions is being discussed.

The time window between processing two token-messages is called aperiod.

-   -   Periods which have finished before the latest token-message was        received (i.e., each one except for the last one) are called        closed periods.    -   The latest period, which will be closed by processing the next        token-message, is called an open period.

For example, in a group which contains three computers, the firstcomputer is going to assume the following values: 0=3*0, 3=3*1, 6=3*2m=3*k where m is the assumed value, k is the number of the periodnumbered from the start of the message-exchange mechanism. Since eachcomputer knows the latest number it also knows the next one. Forexample, a period on this computer is the time elapsed betweenprocessing the messages containing number 3 and 6; or in other words,the time it takes for all the computers in the chain to complete a wholeround of message-passing.

The system never needs to look ahead of the currently open period in anygroup. This means that if the set of computers needs to change within agroup, the new number of computers in the group could potentially bepassed along in the message, so that the newly introduced or removedcomputer can start/stop participating in the message-exchange once thetoken-messages have gone full circle and reached the node that initiatedthe start/stop process.

A computer's local clock can be described with the following twoattributes:

1. What was the value of the last message received?

2. How many computers will be present in the group in this round?

The period last closed by the receipt of a message is called the groupclock value. This is therefore not a global value. To identify it, oneneeds to know which group is being discussed.

Group clock values are also referred to as versions. Since each periodidentifies a group clock value, the terms open and closed versions arealso used to mean the group clock value identified by the open or closedperiod.

Given a group of computers, additional groups of computers may beassociated with each computer within the group. The computer in theoriginal group will be referred to as the parent or parent computer(such as for example root 124 of FIG. 1B), while the additional group ofcomputers associated to it will be called the child or child group(shown as groups 122 of FIG. 1B). These child groups will have a clockof their own, which will advance independently from the parent's clock.This establishes a tree hierarchy of both computers and groups (asparent computers are also members of groups).

One can define the top of the hierarchy to mean the set of computerswhich have no parent computers and the bottom or leaf as those whichhave no children.

It is assumed that communication between computers on the bottom of thehierarchy is orders of magnitude faster than it is between the ones atthe top of it.

An ancestor computer is either a parent of a computer or a group, or anancestor of a parent of a computer or a group. An ancestor group is agroup an ancestor computer belongs to. A common ancestor group is agroup which is an ancestor group to both of the two specified computersor groups. The lowest common ancestor group or lowest common group clockis the first common ancestor group of two specified computers or groupswhen searching from bottom to the top (or more formally: the group,included in both sets, which has the highest number of ancestors). Theroot group is the only group which has no parent and is therefore thetop of the hierarchy.

The lowest common ancestor group should always be computable by anycomputer based on two known versions and the references to their groupclocks.

The root group is a common ancestor group to any two groups in thesystem.

From the child group, a message called value query message containing:

1. The name of the sending computer and

2. A group clock value created by it (which can be either closed or openat this point)

can be sent to the parent computer.

When the parent processes the received message:

-   -   If no value of the parent's clock has been associated with the        received one, it returns the currently open period. In the same        atomic operation, it also assigns the open period's value to all        child-group clock values which are higher than the highest value        already queried, up until and including the value present in the        message.    -   If the received group clock value already has an associated        parent-clock value, it returns the associated group clock value.

One can refer to this relation as a child group clock version beingassociated with the parent-clock version. Associations of versions arebidirectional. Every child version is associated with exactly one parentversion however one parent version can be associated with multiple childversions. The association-relation orders child- and group-versions intoa tree. The term is also transitively associated when describing a chainof association (potentially involving any number of elements) in asequence of parent-child relationships.

As an example, take a child group from which value query messages withthe values 21, 22 and 23 are sent to the parent. Suppose that there are3 computers in the parent's group, of which the parent computer is thefirst one. Let's say the parent receives the values 22 and 21, in thisorder. When it received 22 in the message, its current open period was3, so it will associate the child's clock values of 21 and 22 with itsown clock's value 3. Once it receives the second message, it willimmediately answer 3, since that is a value that has already beenassociated. Let us also assume that by the time it receives the messagecontaining 23, it is on its next open period (and so 3 is now a closedperiod), so it will associate 6 with the value 23.

The association described above can be used to implement a globalordering between any two versions. In subsequent flows, strategies aredescribed to decide if a version comes before, after or at the same timeas another one.

The “at” or “before operator” is defined recursively as the following:if x and y are two versions in the clock hierarchy and X is the groupclock of x and Y is the group clock of y, x is at or before y if

-   -   x and y are version on the same group clock (X=Y) and y is the        same as or earlier than x (y<=x),    -   X is an ancestor group of Y and there is a y′ transitively        associated with x and y<=y′

This algorithm defines a top-down search for everything that is eitherequal to or lower than a chosen version. This is called a weak orderingbecause no strict order can be established using this algorithm betweenthe elements within the set. This method is also referred to as the weakordering strategy.

Using this, one can draw up a set of versions which must have beencreated at the same time, or before the specified version, withouthaving to go deeper into the hierarchy to explore their detailed order.

The strong ordering strategy is:

1. If two versions are from the same group, their values are directlycompared.

2. If the two versions are from different groups, their associated valueis compared on their lowest common group clock.

3. If on the lowest common group clock, one version is transitivelyassociated with the other and therefore no order could be establishedthis way, the one which is lower in the hierarchy (i.e.: the one whichhas more ancestors) is the lower one.

The strong ordering is stricter then the weak ordering by the 3) point.These guarantee a deterministic order between any two versions.

Continuing the above example: If one were to ask which values are at orbefore the parent's group clock's value of 3, it is possible to knowthat the answer is 21 and 22. If, however one were to ask which onesfulfil the same requirement for 6, the answer cannot be complete as thatperiod is still open and therefore can still accept higher values.

Since there is no guarantee that the parent computer will receive thechild group's clock values in order, the answers coming from the parentcomputer can only be consistent if it does not only consider its currentopen period, but it also takes its earlier replies into account.

The association between clocks is therefore atomic, since it is definedby when the parent-computer first received a higher value than thehighest one stored previously.

Continuing the previous example, if:

-   -   The last value received on the parent from the child clock was        22,    -   The next one was 27,    -   The current open period's value is 6,

Then the value 6 on the parent's group clock will be associated withevery natural number between 23 and 27.

Imagine a group which includes 3 computers, A, B and C, as shown in FIG.1A. Each of them has an associated child group named after the parentcomputers, so group A, group B and group C, respectively, as shown inFIG. 1B.

FIGS. 1C-1F relate to exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flows for adistributed database according to at least some embodiments of thepresent invention. These flows relate to servers A, B and C and/orgroups A, B and C as appropriate.

FIG. 1C shows possible association of version nodes between thedescribed groups. The illustration here shows a possible result of thegroup clock's independent execution and the value query messages whichassociate the versions of the 4 independent clocks.

In the upper half, in the first column, from top to bottom:

-   -   The number in the top row is the value of the group clock. So,        the first value is 0. The values received by A are shown with a        larger number to show at which points the cycle started again.    -   The A underneath 0 shows that the value is associated with a        value of the group clock of group A.    -   The number 5 under the A shows that the parent group's value of        0 is associated with version 5 of group A.

The second column is computer B receiving its first message fromcomputer A, the third one is computer C receiving its first message fromcomputer B and so on.

The lower half shows the three independent group clocks. These aredenoted by their parent computer's names, so they are labelled as A, Band C in the bottom row.

The leftmost curly bracket above the segment 0 and 5 shows the values ofgroup A associated with computer A's 0 period. The arrows show anassociation-message that was sent to the parent computer from its childgroup. The leftmost arrow is the first one, where the parent was A, andthe message contained group A's clock value of 5. To help differentiatebetween them, each group has a different style for the line of thearrow. Group A has a solid line, B has a dotted line and C has adouble-dotted-triple-dashed line.

Assume that a client's purpose for using the clock is that it shouldalways be able to decide which clock values happened at or before (orinversely, after) a specific time. First, say that the client uses theroot group clock, so when it poses this question, the read operation'sreference value (against which all others are compared) belongs to theroot group clock.

FIG. 1D shows which values will be at or before if the reference valueis 1. The dotted area represents the clock values which are at or beforethe root group clock's value of 1. The values included from group A arethe ones between 0 and 5, for group B, between 0 and 2. Nothing isincluded from group C. The reason for this is that even though the childgroups' clocks advance independently from their parent clocks, theiradvancing determine which values will be assigned from the child groupsto the parent group. Group B's group clock's value is 3. The valuesbetween 0, 1 and 2 were created before computer B received its firsttoken-message. For a client looking in from the outside, these valuesrepresented by group B will first be visible after the computer Bprocessed its first token-message, even if the computer B has processedthe values sent by group B earlier. Thus, the client will receive thevalues represented by the dotted area, as the ones which are at orbefore value 1 on the root group clock.

FIG. 1E illustrates the state of all group clocks after the next round(of passing the token messages) has finished. Since in the previousfigure the root group clock assumed the position 1 and since there are 3computers in the root group, the clock's value is 4. If one compared thedotted area in this figure with the one above, one can tell that neithergroup A nor group C provided new values during last round. Group B,however, has extended its set of values since the previous cycle, andnow includes values between 3 and 11. This illustrates that group clocksdo not assume that child groups associate new values in each round totheir parents.

FIG. 1F shows the state after the next value was assumed on the rootgroup clock. Compared to the previous figure, the only change is thatthe next computer in line (computer C) has processed the token-messageit received from child group C. Based on this, one can tell that whilegroup clock assumed values 2 and 5, the highest value computer Creceived from child group C was 9.

The above hierarchical clocks are preferably implemented to allow forthe comparison of two versions (which are potentially remote to eachother) without necessarily needing to exchange messages to distantcomputers with high network latencies. It is assumed that the networkdistance between two computers at the top of the hierarchy is someorders of magnitude higher than between those lower down. The otheraspect of this is that (assuming optimal geographical distribution) theclosest member of the root group is orders of magnitude quicker to reachthan the others. Therefore, if the information used to decide whether acertain version is “at or before” another version can be gatheredwithout having to move very far, the operation becomes a lot quicker.

FIG. 2 relates to another exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting systemfor a distributed database according to at least some embodiments of thepresent invention. As shown, a system 200 features a cloud connection202, to which clients 201 of the datastore may connect. The data storecan be described as a single “computer” in the system which can managesome state, distributed across 3 different data centers.

Cloud connection 202 also connects to a plurality of conductors 204.Each conductor 204 in turn connects to a public queue 206, whichconnects to a persistence node 208. Public queue 206 also connects to anactor 210 which connects to a staging queue 212. Staging queue 212 thenreports back to conductor 204. Actor 210 is an actor node whichparticipate in maintaining the internal state of the database andexecuting the operations upon it (i. e., the nodes mentioned previously,which are the servers and computers of the various groups for the datastore).

Conductor nodes, shown as conductors 204, manage the forwarding ofmessages between a client 201 to target actor nodes. They reside on thetarget actor node's computer. Persistence nodes (208) provide durablebackups of the system states.

Messages between nodes are passed through message-channels, describedherein as queues. Staging queues 212, into which actor nodes publish,and from which conductor nodes consume messages, reside on the samecomputer as the node which was the source of the message. Public queues206, into which conductor nodes publish, and from which actor nodesconsume messages, reside on the consuming actor nodes' computers.

These queues can be replicated and distributed in any way theimplementation sees fit. There are currently a number of availablesolutions to this, such as various messaging providers, such as forexample Kafka or JMS.

Clients 201 send requests to the system through the internet. They arereceived at the data center they choose to connect to. Each data centeris represented by rounded boxes with dotted lines. The requests arereceived by the conductor nodes. The conductor nodes 204 are representedas a single box spanning all 3 data centers. This represents that it's asingle logical unit, which is synchronously distributed across all itsinstances in this example.

A message received from the clients 201 by any of the conductor nodeinstances 204 is synchronized with them before they are published to thepublic queue 206. The actor nodes 210 consume from the public queue 206.After processing the incoming message, the actor nodes 210 publish itsresulting messages into their own staging queues 212, from which theconductor nodes 204 consume messages, thus closing the loop.

Responses to client requests are also sent to the conductor nodes 204,which send responses to the clients 201.

Persistence nodes 208 also consume the same messages from the publicqueues 206 as actor nodes 210 do, but they don't publish anything. Theycreate durable backups of the internal state of the database, instead ofthe event-streams utilized everywhere else.

A separate instance exists for each staging queue for each actor nodeinstance. The nodes can be distributed according to the specific needsof the concerned actor- and staging nodes.

The purpose of the conductor nodes is to forward messages from thestaging-queues to the public-queues (when their configured conditionsfor forwarding have been fulfilled) and at the same time provideerror-correction guarantees.

For example, a conductor node might be configured to designate a replicaof an actor node to be marked as unavailable if it didn't receive theexpected answer from it within the allocated time. Once it becomesavailable again and has caught up with all the messages in the queue,this marker can be removed and normal operation can resume.

Conductor nodes can provide a failover mechanism by forwarding themessages from the staging queues to a specific public queue once a setnumber of the same message has been received (minimum-message number) onits configured staging queues (see the section Network Splits foradditional rules). Since each executing process will publish exactly onecopy of each message, minimum-message number has to be lower than orequal to the number of replicas for the targeted node(replication-factor). This way, even if“replication-factor—minimum-message number” nodes are lost in thesystem, it's still fully functional.

Conductor nodes can also be configured to have a set maximum idle timeso that if at least one copy of the message is received to theconfigured staging queue, it can still forward it to the public queue ifno other nodes have responded within the allocated time (e.g., if a VMgarbage collector pause or a spike in network latency occurs).

The above implies that replicas of the public-queues must be maintainedsynchronously, since if they were maintained in a write-behind fashionand the nodes which are ahead were lost, some messages would not befulfilled in the system.

Conductor nodes can have multiple instances running on multiple machinesfor redundancy. In this case, the framework must make sure that amessage will not be processed twice by the actor node. This (forexample) can be done using a “publish only if not present” mechanism,which must be atomic for the distributed queue, or by the actor nodesignoring the message after its first occurrence in the queue.

Conductor-nodes provide error-correction mechanisms by comparing themessages published by all the other nodes to each other. According tothe Gigabit Ethernet network standard IEEE 802.3ab, the maximumacceptable Bit Error Rate is 1 in 1010 bits. It has been estimated thatsomewhere between 1 in 16*106 to 1 in 109 TCP packets can be corruptedwithout a CRC catching the error(https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=347561&dl=GUIDE=coll=GUIDE).

An error like that could be problematic for a system such as this, so anadditional layer can be useful. Provided that the nodes are expected tohave a uniform distribution for the bits which can potentially becorrupted in transition from one node to the queue and the distributionof error bits on any two nodes are independent, the chances of threemessages having the same error, (even when considering the lowernumbers, i.e.: higher chances) would be 1 packet in (16*106)3, whichmeans that it would take roughly 130 million years for the systemrunning a million packets each second for one bit of error to happen.This is compared to the current state of the art, which is 16*106, whichwould be about 16 seconds.

The system's backup mechanism works through persistence nodes. Theirpurpose is to consume the same input messages as all the other nodes ina write-behind approach which does not block any of the other nodes fromexecuting and to save the resulting internal states. The persistencenode can consume messages at its own time, since if the computer runningit or the surrounding infrastructure does go down, it can still pick upwhere it stopped by fetching the next index from the distributed queue.Another requirement for the persistence nodes is that the write of thestate to its local disk is transactional, so that if it reports that allmessages have been consumed up to an index. This must be true even aftera system failure. The persistence node is allowed to fetch messagesagain. This is useful if it was stopped from reaching a consistent statefor some reason. This way it does not have to reach a consistent,persisted state after processing each message.

There is no limit to the number of persistence nodes the system canmaintain, so these can also act as local copies of subsets of the wholesystem.

Any two computers exchanging network packets over some physical mediumsuffer from some level of network latency. This is an often-discussedproblem of distributed systems and no clean solution has been proposedto this issue.

Due to the requirement that replicas of public queues must be keptsynchronously, and because each operation must wait for all its messagesto be answered when an answer is expected, at first glance, the systemseems to have as many “single point of failures” as there are publicqueues in it.

There are, however mitigating strategies. Since nodes can have multiplesynchronous replicas in different geographical locations (and aretherefore very unlikely to suffer the same latency spikes as the othermembers of the cluster), and since modern queue-management systems likeKafka can alleviate latency problems by choosing a “leader” to definethe correct state of the queue based on the availability ofqueue-replicas, latency problems can be isolated when they arise.

Let us define the “minimum-message number” property of a given actornode as the number N.

If one disregards local processing times, and consider that theconductor nodes are executing on the same computers as the publicqueues, any message's latency in the system will be equal to the highestvalue of the lowest N network latencies between the staging and thepublic queues.

Say that there are 5 replicas for a public queue, where the medianlatency is 5 milliseconds for each replica. Of these 5 replicas 3 aresynchronous, the rest are write-behind. If one of the replicas isisolated from the others due to a network outage, the node can stillwork as expected and the 5 ms latency will still hold, as the missingreplica will be ignored until it rejoins the cluster. In these cases thenormally synchronous replica can be considered to be reclassified to awrite-behind status, as it can only rejoin the other two once it hascaught up with all the messages that were published since it wasisolated from the others.

For write-behind, asynchronous replicas, the only requirement is thatall their input-queues must have an eventual consensus about

-   -   The messages and their contents in the queue and    -   Their ordering.

Eventual consensus here means that not all queues have to receive allthe messages at the same time, but if they have, the messages and theirorder must all match until that point and the missing message willeventually have to be delivered before the one after it is accepted.

Network Splits

A subclass of the latency problem is the network split. If the systemwere to naively serve clients during a network outage between two datacenters replicating the same nodes, it could end up in a situation whereit allowed mutating its local states which can conflict with the localstate mutated by other computers on the other side of the network split.

Because of this, nodes must only be able to serve requests if they cancommunicate with the plurality of its own public queue's synchronousreplicas. Luckily, there's already a mechanism to deal with this rule,the conductor node's settings. If there are no incoming messages to thepublic queue of the node, it won't process any operations, and willtherefore be idle. So, conductor node's settings must disallowpublishing messages to the public queue, unless it can see more thanhalf of all synchronous replicas of it. This way, if a node fails tosend a message to another node, it will be notified about the networkoutage affecting a particular region of the system and will thereforestop serving requests.

FIG. 3 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow for around of token messages according to at least some embodiments of thepresent invention, also described with regard to FIGS. 1A and 1B above.As shown in a flow 300, computer B processes a token message at 302 asdescribed above. At 304, a database client (operated by a usercomputational device as previously described) accesses the root groupclock at t=3. For this flow, the client is assumed to be using the rootgroup clock to determine timing for read/write messages. At 306, theclient reads messages from computer B prior to t=3. Next a round ofpassing token messages is performed at 308, in which computers in thegroup are updated. Now the client reads messages from group computersthat updated in 310.

FIG. 4 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow for aclosure process according to at least some embodiments of the presentinvention, in particular for the problem of transitive closure. Thisproblem may be described as follows. Since querying the clock hierarchyfor open periods is allowed and since open periods are closedindependently from each other in each group, it is possible that aparent's closed period is associated with open periods in its childgroup. So, even if the parent closed its period and even though thisversion no longer accepts new associated versions from its children,there is no guarantee that its children will not accept transitivelyassociated versions from their own children. This is possible for anopen version on the child group which was already associated with aversion on the parent.

This guarantee would only hold if, by the time the parent clock's periodwas closed, the periods the child sent earlier were also guaranteed tohave been closed. Ensuring this would mean that the parent clock has towait before closing its currently open period until it receives a signalfor at least the highest period from the child computer associated withit. This is not only complicated, but would also slow down the closingprocess, which would affect the throughput of the whole system.

There are two versions, x and y on two computers. If, on the lowestcommon group the associated version are x′ and y′ respectively, x and yare considered to be transitively closed if all the versions in the x→x′association chain and all the versions in the y→y′ association chain areclosed.

One can use this information to know that each version that isassociated (directly or transitively) with the specified versions in allthe groups between the two versions have already been closed and socannot include more information than what it already has. This does notguarantee that all versions transitively associated with these versionshave also been closed.

Each computer holds an association list of all its ancestor computersand its highest version known by it to have been transitively closed.This associated list is called the list of known transitive closures.

Transitive closure messages are communicated from top to bottom. Themessage contains the list of versions and their originating computers(which is a chain of transitively associated versions). The firstelement of the list is the highest, triggering computer. The versions inthe chain are added to the end of the list once they were also found tobe closed.

Turning now to FIG. 4, as shown in a flow 400, a parent computer closesa period in 402. Each time a parent computer closes a period, it checksif that version was associated with another one on its child group in404. If it was, it lists the associated versions for each computer inthe child group and sends a transitive closure message to each in 406,containing the version it just closed as the first element of the list.

When a child computer processes the message in 408, it replaces thehighest transitively closed version information for the ancestors listedin the message in its known transitive closures list if the newlyreceived version information is a higher number than the previous onestored for the ancestor. Next, if the local version associated with theparent's version is still open, it waits for the next token-message toarrive in 410. Once the next token message has arrived, the childcomputer adds the local version associated with the parent's version tothe end of the transitive close message in 412.

The child computer then lists the associated child periods for thisversion for each computer in its child group and sends the transitiveclosure message to each in 414, or terminates if it is not a parentcomputer.

This way, each computer has a list of which versions are stable fortheir ancestor computers, i.e., the highest known version to which nonew values will be associated (either directly or transitively) on itsancestors.

FIG. 5 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow for aread/write process according to at least some embodiments of the presentinvention, which relates to transactionality. Deletes, modifications andcreation of records can be thought of as incremental new informationwithin the system. When defined this way, the whole state of the systemcan be described by a constantly growing set of information, where newinformation is based on earlier ones. If a version is assigned to thesebits of information, one can tell the ordering of any two pieces ofinformation (for details, see Weak and strong ordering).

If the system is to be consistent, the observer must be able todeterministically tell whether a piece of information is a part of thewhole system for each finalized version, and no previously enteredinformation can be lost.

The system stores information, upon which read/write operations areexecuted. These processes and the modifications created by them arecalled transactions. Transactions can be cancelled, in which case thetransaction won't affect the information (i.e., the information readableby clients) in the system. Thus, the transaction defines both a set ofinformation and the read/write process. Transactions are alwaysassociated with (and managed by) a single computer. Records are atomicpieces of information which are viewable by the client. A new version ofa record (created by a transaction updating it) is called a variant.Based on the above, when serving a client request, at most one variantfor a record can be chosen at any time.

The system preferably supports the atomic finalization or cancellationof variants created by a single transaction. This means that no propersubset of information written by a transaction can be read by anothertransaction. Since the client can use any closed period to query thesystem and since information is distributed across multiple computers,some form of synchronization is needed to achieve this. Current databaseservers solve this problem by blocking the execution of all but one of aset of conflicting transactions until a decision is made whether theexecuting transaction is committed or cancelled. This solution involvesblocking transactions, so this is not an acceptable strategy here.

If an operation modifies an existing record, the system guarantees thatthe variant it introduces will be the next one compared to the record itread during its read-phase (this implies that records have to be read bythe process before they can be modified) or that the whole transactionwill be cancelled.

The reference version is a specific version chosen for the statement, towhich all encountered variants' versions will be compared. A readoperation will only include a variant in its results if the variant'sversion is at or before the reference version.

Turning now to FIG. 5, the transaction process 500 preferably startswith 502, in which the computer associated with the transactiongenerates a transaction identifier, which also identifies the associatedcomputer. In 504, the computer creates a transaction record on thecomputer associated with the transaction. In 506, the computeridentifies the reference version to use for its read operations whichdepends on the isolation level. In 508, the computer executes theread/write operations. In 510, the computer starts the commit process,which will be detailed in an optional implementation below. In 512, ifthe commit process finishes successfully, the transaction is assigned afinal version, which will also become the final version of each piece ofinformation it created. In 514, if the commit process fails, thetransaction is cancelled, and it has no effect on the information in thesystem.

FIG. 6 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow for awrite process according to at least some embodiments of the presentinvention. While the transaction is executing its processes (and so canread or write data on multiple computers) it does not have a finalversion. Therefore, variants created by it (potentially on othercomputers) cannot have a version either.

Until the final version is assigned to it, the transaction uses itsglobally unique transaction identifier in place of a version.

A transaction executes the following steps when updating or creating aset of records, as shown in a flow 600. In 602, the transaction collectsthe variants and keys of the records it will need to update by executingthe read operation (skipped if it is a new record, not a modification).In 604, based on the key of each record, it identifies which computershold them (the target computers). In 606, for each record, it sends awrite message to the target computer, which contains:

1. the new value of the record,

2. the transaction identifier,

3. if this is a modification: the record's version read earlier.

The target computers process the message (in an atomic operation). In608, if this is a modification: the transaction checks if the variantalready has a finalized version that is later than the version read in602. If it does, then the whole transaction is cancelled.

Otherwise, in 610, the transaction creates a new variant which holds thetransaction identifier as a temporary (non-finalized) version.

In 612, the target computers send an acknowledgement for each writeoperation.

For this non-limiting example, it is assumed that variants created byfinalized transactions never overlap. In other words: 606 on thecomputer managing the record is the atomic event from which point onwardno two parallel transactions can be committed which have both insertedvariants for the same record.

If a transaction updates the same record multiple times, the samevariant will be updated with the new values of the record, but theoriginal read version of the variant will not be changed. This is safeto do, because (even if the implementing database chooses a relaxedisolation strategy and allows for an earlier version in a later readstatement than the one it used before) a transaction will always findits own changes of a record first.

The commit process is performed in 614. After the commit processfinishes successfully, the finalized version is written into thetransaction's record. The assignment of the final version to thetransaction is the atomic event of the transaction's commit. The finalversion will be the open version of the group clock on the computerassociated with the transaction.

FIG. 7 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow forselecting a correct version according to at least some embodiments ofthe present invention for a read process. To be able to serve readrequests in a non-blocking fashion, the following is proposed:

1. The read process first compiles the necessary data from the computersholding the required keys.

2. It computes the reference version according to the isolation levelused by the read process.

3. Before applying the data transformations required by the client, itfilters out variants which are “after” the calculated version (see at orbefore relation).

4. For each record, the variant with the highest version is chosen.

Thus, since variants (which are part of a single transaction) areentered into the system atomically, they will either all be a part ofthe results, or will all be filtered.

Variants introduced by a transaction will be observable by another readprocess if the version of the transaction and the reference version ofthe read process are transitively closed.

An aim of the system is to provide Oracle- and Postgres-like“statement-level repeatable read” isolation-level for each execution. Tothis end, a single reference version is identified for each readprocess.

Since the transaction is assigned a version in an atomic event, it ispossible that the variant found by the read process will not yet holdthe transaction's final version when the query finds it, even thoughthis assignment might have already happened on the remote computermanaging the transaction. In these cases, (when the read processencounters a variant with a transaction id during its execution) it hasto query the computer managing that transaction about the current stateof the transaction. If the transaction has been finalized in themeantime, the variant will be included in the results. In any othercase, the variant will be filtered out, either if it has no version orif the version was found to be later than the reference version, unlessits transaction-identifier is that of the read process.

This is safe to do from a consistency perspective, since no variantwhich was created after the read operation's message has reached thetarget computers can be included in the results. This is due to the factthat only transitively closed values can be chosen as referenceversions. Since all versions at or before (and hence, the set of valuesassociated with) a transitively closed version on a computer areguaranteed to also be closed on the queried computers, these immutablesets must be consistent. Because of the transitive closure, itguarantees that no information is in flux between different computers.All of the periods have been closed between two computers.

When reading a record, a transaction takes the following steps in aprocess 700. At 702, based on the key of the record, it identifies whichcomputer holds the record; this is the target computer. At 704, it sendsa query message to the target computer containing the reference versionand the key of the record. At 706, the target computer sends a responseconsisting of:

1. all the variants of the record, and

2. the list of its known transitively closed group clock values.

At 708, once the response is received on the transaction's computer, iftransaction identifiers were found, computers associated with thesetransactions are queried for their versions. At 710, the receivedversions replace the transaction identifiers on variants, which werecreated by the transactions. At 712, the variants marked with atransaction identifier equal to the executing transaction's owntransaction identifier are also added to the results. Those variantswhich have no finalized version are preferably filtered out.

The reference version is calculated according to the isolation level andthe remaining variants using the algorithm described below.

The chosen variant in 714 is:

1. The one with the same transaction identifier as the transactionrunning the statement, or if that does not exist,

2. The one with the highest version using the strong ordering strategy.

The results are returned to the client after formatted according to thestatement's requirements in 716.

FIG. 8 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow forhandling clashing transactions according to at least some embodiments ofthe present invention. Because the set of variants left by a singletransaction can only be finalized atomically, the event of thefinalization of these variants is the same event as the finalization ofthe transaction itself and vice versa.

Each variant holds:

-   -   The version of the variant that was modified    -   The finalized version of the transaction    -   The new value of the record.

Since the version of the transaction is either missing or (if finalized)necessarily later than the version of the variant which was modified byit, a period between these two versions can be identified. One can callthis the contended time window. The purpose of the flow for FIG. 8 is toguarantee that there can never be two finalized variants for the samerecord with overlapping contended time windows.

In other words, the observer must always be able to tell what the stateof a record was at any given time. In a distributed environment, this isnot only an important but also a difficult question, since differentcomputers can each have different pieces of information. The classicsolution to this problem is to make overlapping write processes wait foreach other's termination, so that if both transactions are trying tomodify the same record, only one of them can progress, and the other onewill have to wait until the first one has finished all its operations.

Since transactions cannot wait for each other in this system (this is arequirement of linear scalability), a different solution is needed.

Variants in the system always have a guaranteed order between them(i.e., they cannot be equal to each other, or they would have beenwritten by overlapping transactions).

In the next examples there are two transactions: A and B, which are bothmodifying information X held on computer 0. The information of thetransactions is held on computers OA and OB, respectively. The variantfor X written by A is called XA, the one written by B is referred to asXB.

Each transaction leaves a mark of its transaction identifier on thevariant created by it, as explained in the Write process chapter. Iftransaction B's write operation creating XB came after the creation ofXA, one can say that B is known to be clashing with A on X, sincetransaction B can (during its execution of the write operation) see A'stransaction identifier on the variant XA. This is not necessarily asymmetric relationship. For it to be so, both transactions would need toknow about the variant left by the other one. To achieve this, A wouldneed to look at X at a later stage again, after XB had been created.Therefore, this relationship can be symmetric, but it is not guaranteedto be.

As explained previously, a read process can only read the variantseither created by its own transaction or those with a finalized versionat or before the reference version of the read process. Here, thediscussion is simplified so that a process can only read variants whichwere already finalized when the read process started.

Continuing the example, if B is known to be clashing with A, this alsomeans that B has information that both A and B cannot be committed. So Bwill only get an opportunity to be committed, if A is cancelled. Thesituation is different from A's point of view: since it arrived at Xbefore B's write operation did, it does not have this information. Inother words, A does not know that it conflicts with B.

Thus, there is asymmetrical information between the transactions, whichaffects their end-state calculations. However, the dependency itself ismutual. So, if A is committed by the system, then B has to be cancelledand vice versa. As mentioned earlier, the commit processes can also berun on different computers at the same time and they are not allowed toblock each other from finishing.

The solution is an algorithm that guarantees that (based on theinformation available to them) each transaction can calculate what thefinal state is for overlapping transactions. In other words, which oneswere committed and which ones were cancelled in the system.

If the final state of a transaction (the information whether it wascommitted or cancelled) is purely a function of its dependencies onother transactions held in the system (and their state), the final stateitself is only a redundancy, which can be reliably calculated again bylooking up the necessary information.

So, the goal is an algorithm which guarantees that:

1. Two clashing (conflicting, overlapping) transactions will never bothbe committed.

2. Each running transaction will reach the same conclusion about thefinal state of each overlapping transaction.

3. The algorithm can run in parallel on multiple computers withpotentially high latencies between them and each one will reach the sameconclusion about the end state of each transaction it needs to knowabout.

Turning now to FIG. 8, in a process 800, the set of transactions whichthe transaction knows to be clashing with (as it has seen their variantsduring its execution) is determined in 802. Next in 804, the set oftransactions which have seen at least one variant created by thetransaction for a record they also modified, and have notified thetransaction about this at the start of their own commit process, beforethe transaction's commit process was started, is determined.

Let us call the first set the discovered clashing transactions (ordiscovered for short), and the second set the registered clashingtransactions (or registered for short). The elements in either set willbe called the detected transactions. Both sets already exist when atransaction's commit process is started.

Every transaction's intent to commit either has to be registered on therecord of the other transaction, or (failing that) calculate what theend state of the other transactions are. In other words: whether atransaction A can register its intent to commit on transaction B is thesame as asking the questions:

1. Will A be finalized and force B to be cancelled?

2. Will B be finalized and force A to be cancelled?

3. Will both of them be cancelled?

The goal of the flow is that at any time a transaction reads the data ofanother transaction, it can make an unequivocal decision.

When transactions are committed, they need to notify the discoveredtransactions about this and must stop them from being committed beforethose transactions can stop it.

When transaction B has finished writing all its variants and collectedall the information about the transactions it clashes with (call thistransaction A), the client can ask the system to commit its changes. Onecan look at the transactions known to be clashing with this transactionin two ways:

-   -   B must stop A from committing or    -   if A's commit process has already started, B must find out what        A's final state is and determine its own final state based on        this information.

This process is performed in 806, to determine whether A is before B.

So, if transaction A's commit process was started earlier on OA and Bdiscovered A, then it inspects and finalizes the registered set on OB in808. After this, the registered set is immutable. Transaction A thenfinds the transactions in 810 which were:

1. not in its registered set

2. but are present in its discovered set

Transaction A then sends a message to the computers managing thesetransactions in 812, notifying them that B is clashing with them andthat its commit process was started. In our example, this is A managedby OA.

After this atomic step, B does not accept any more transactions whichcould stop it from committing. Therefore, transactions which clash withB on any record and arrive later, are blocked by B, so that they canonly commit if B is cancelled.

Using the above, the potential circles are eliminated from the analysis,as the essence of such a loop is that an event in a set affects(directly or indirectly) an element which was already present in it.This is impossible, since as soon as the commit process is started, atransaction record's state is no longer mutable.

Since the discovered set is final (as the transaction's execution hasfinished) and the registered set is no longer mutable after this eventeither, any state that could influence the decision on A's end-state isimmutable as far as the transaction record present is concerned.

So, if (when the commit process is started) A finds that B is listed inits registered set, the following is known:

1. B's commit process started before A's.

2. B's registered set is no longer mutable.

So it is known already whether B is an obstacle to A committing or viceversa.

If B is not in A's registered set, A will assume that B has not startedyet, so B's end-state doesn't have to be calculated by A when its commitprocess decides whether it can be committed. In this case thetransactions which have to be inspected are the ones which are in theregistered set at the time of finalization.

A transaction will be committed if and only if:

-   -   either its registered set is empty,    -   or every transaction in its registered set has been cancelled.

If one assumes that every transaction's state can be explored in thesystem (and since there can be no circles in the registered sets), itcan be shown that an end state can be reliably calculated for eachtransaction.

This would be a sufficient solution if each commit ran in a globalorder. However, since multiple computers participate in the system,commit processes can start in parallel and they can finalize theirregistered sets simultaneously. Therefore, it is possible thattransaction B discovered by A is not yet present in its registered set,but by the time the message (notifying B) arrived, it already startedits own commit process and thus finalized its registered set. In thiscase A is cancelled. Since this relationship is asymmetrical (so B doesnot necessarily know about its overlap with A) it is possible, but notcertain, that both transactions are cancelled.

If transaction A has successfully registered itself in the registeredset of each of its discovered transactions, one can say the finalizationprocess had a successful start. Conversely, if A encounters at least onefinalized registered set while trying to register itself, one can saythat it had a failed start.

A successful start is a necessary but not sufficient condition for atransaction's successful commit.

To decide whether a transaction had a successful start, it is necessaryto:

-   -   Receive each message on the computer holding the record of the        discovered transaction,    -   For the message to be processed,    -   The resulting message to be sent,    -   For the original computer to process the resulting messages.

Thus, the information is not available at the start of the commitprocess. This process of sending out the messages and waiting for theirresults is called the start state aggregation. The start stateaggregation process is considered closed when either the firstunsuccessful registration message was processed or when all registrationmessages have been processed successfully.

Therefore, a transaction A can be considered to have committed if andonly if:

1. its registered set is empty or each transaction in it was found tohave been cancelled; and

2. for each transaction B which is not present in A's registered set,but is present in its discovered set, transaction A is present in B'sregistered set (in other words, if A managed to register itself intoeach discovered transaction's registered set in time).

It is considered to be cancelled otherwise.

In order to get rid of information which can no longer be of use in thesystem, it needs to reach a global consensus on what versions are stillin use. The result of this consensus is that anything before thisversion can either be removed (if it was technical information used forthe commit process for example) or made permanent (if there weremultiple versions for a record for example) for information whereversions no longer matter (as it is now visible to all present andfuture read processes). Since each computer executing a process mustparticipate in this consensus, its value must eventually be communicatedas a value of the clock of the root node-group, as this is the onlyancestor-group to everyone.

A possible solution to this is to implement a hierarchicalmessage-passing sequence between the computers executing theseprocesses. Each round-trip could yield the lowest version still in usewithin the specific group of computers, after which this version couldbe translated to the parent-computer's level by passing it upwards inthe hierarchy. After the root-group completes its own message-passinground, the result is the lowest global version still in use by any ofthe currently executing processes.

This mechanism could manage timeouts, cancels and information left overfrom transaction commits, for example.

For performance reasons, it is suggested that transactions (which havebeen assigned a version) should update the information they inserted byconverting their own version values to the clock of the computer holdingit. Although no transitively associated value can exist between mostcomputers, a local range can still be specified, which would saysomething like “version between X and Y” (where X<Y and are localvalues).

As an added measure it is also suggested to introduce a reserved versionnumber, which is lower than any other version in the system. This isuseful when a version of an information is known to be lower than thelowest version still used by the system. In these cases, theinformation's version would no longer serve any purpose but would stillneed to be considered when running queries.

FIG. 9 relates to an exemplary, illustrative, non-limiting flow for amessage process according to at least some embodiments of the presentinvention. In a flow 900, three layers of nodes (computational devices)that provide the data store are shown: a root 902 as layer one, which isthe root computational device; a first layer of child nodes 904 as layertwo; and a second layer of child nodes 906 as layer three. Each circleis a computational device.

On the left hand side, at child nodes 906, a message 32 is shown asbeing passed from node 01 to node 02. This message is then passed bynode 02 up to the parent of node 02, which is node 0 of the first layerof child nodes 904, in order to update node 0.

On the right hand side, at child notes 906, a message 1 is passed fromnode 20 to node 21. Node 21 then updates node 2 of the next level in thehierarchy.

With regard to child nodes 904, a message 4 is passed from node 1 tonode 2, which then updates the root 902 and also updates node 0.

Additional non-limiting aspects of the system and method of the presentinvention are described below.

Even though a technical detail, redundancy, latency- andfailover-management are critical aspects of distributed systems. In thefollowing, an optional embodiment is presented to configure the systemso that it can recover from the simultaneous failure of multiple nodes,provide error-correction, persistence and a latency mitigation strategy.

The system communicates using asynchronous messages only. These messagesare published to- and consumed from queues. There is no requirement forall messages in the system to provide a response for every message-type(i.e.: some message types require a response, some do not), and if itdoes, there's no requirement for the response to be sent immediatelyafter the original message's processing has finished (although thespirit of the framework is that it should).

In this implementation, it is required that each node in the systemmust:

-   -   Be able to list the versions used by its executing operations        according to the requirements of the implementing system. No        obvious solution can be suggested here to determine this        version, since the way isolation-levels are implemented in a        system or the way caching strategies are employed can influence        what versions are still used here.    -   Not rely on any state specific to the host-system (e.g.:        computer's internal clock, IP- or MAC-address or any of the        other local settings).    -   Must only use deterministic code, like repeatable randomization        using a known seed.    -   Be able to provide the index of the last message it processed        from its input-queue when requested.    -   Have a set number of running replicas.

Each queue in the system must:

-   -   Have a repeatable order in which they store messages    -   Be able to provide these messages again, in order, starting from        an index chosen by the client API    -   Be persistent, so that if the system suddenly loses power, the        messages which have been accepted by the queue are not lost    -   Be consistent, so that messages which have been accepted by the        queue are still available even if any of the computers managing        the node becomes unresponsive

The above means that the human definition of time is replaced by one ofmessage ordering and determinism. These requirements also mean that eachstate of each computer can be reconstructed by feeding them the orderedmessages in the public queues.

According to at least some embodiments, the system preferably comprisesa number of clocks ordered into a hierarchical tree structure, advancingindependently from each other. On this structure, an algorithm existswhich defines global timestamps. Any two timestamps can be compared toeach other to decide which happened:

1. Later,

2. Earlier or

3. At the same time.

The system preferably operates according to an algorithm whichguarantees that each piece of information will be readable and can beevaluated using a certain timestamp and that information introducedlater cannot be a part of the results.

At least one flow according to at least some embodiments provides asolution which guarantees that if there are conflicting modifications,there is a system-wide consensus regarding which modifications (if any)have been accepted and which were rejected. More formally: if version isdefined to be the value of a piece of information at a given time, theneach version can only have at most one successive version.

According to at least some embodiments, an implementing infrastructureenables:

-   -   Fail-safe, redundant communication between computers in the        distributed system,    -   Error-correction,    -   Persistence,    -   Replication    -   And latency mitigation.

According to at least some embodiments, the system as described hereinallows for the implementation of an SQL-compatible database. Somenon-limiting points of comparison are now made with SQL databases.

The SQL standard allows for:

1. A transaction to be refused for any reason, at the discretion of theserver;

2. The database to escalate the defined isolation level without askingfor permission from the client.

The system described herein, in at least some embodiments, guaranteesthat it follows the industry's ACID properties, which are:

1. Transactions are introduced into the datastore atomically and theother transactions will also acquire any information introduced by itatomically.

2. The redundant constraint-information introduced by a transaction willonly become available at the same time as all the other informationentered by the transaction and there can never be two simultaneousparallel transactions committed which would together violate theconstraint. Thus, it is always possible for the system to evaluate thevalidity of a redundant constraint-record either at the time theinformation is introduced or at commit.

3. Transactions cannot read or write each other's half-finished states.

4. Information already accepted by the system cannot be lost at a latertime.

As implied, this system does not solve the existing issues posed by theSQL-standard, such as phantom reads, phantom writes or the necessity ofusing SELECT FOR UPDATE statements for signaling write-protection of aset of information when that is needed.

The term statement means roughly the same in this document as it does inthe SQL-standard, so a read and/or write instruction from the client,which might have resulted in some information being presented back toit.

The SQL standard defines the following read phenomena:

Dirty Read: When a transaction is allowed to read data from a row thatwas modified by another transaction but not yet committed.

Non-repeatable Read: When a record is selected twice during theexecution of a transaction and its value changes between the two.

Phantom Read: When a new record is inserted that fulfils the criteria ofa repeated search and it was not present the first time, but it ispresent the second time.

Isolation levels are defined by whether these phenomena are allowed ordisallowed from happening during the course of their execution. Thefollowing table connects the read phenomena to the isolation leveldefinitions:

Dirty Non-repeatable Phantom Isolation Level Read Read Read READUNCOMMITTED Allowed Allowed Allowed READ COMMITTED Disallowed AllowedAllowed REPEATABLE READ Disallowed Disallowed Allowed SERIALIZABLEDisallowed Disallowed Disallowed

Isolation levels are allowed to be elevated, allowing escalation fromthe more lenient toward the stricter ones. For example, the system isallowed to serve READ COMMITTED transactions to the client if itrequested a READ UNCOMMITTED one, but not the other way around.

Without wishing to be limited, the system of the present inventionpreferably allows the READ COMMITTED and the SERIALIZABLE isolationlevels. This is due to the different architecture of the data store,which is designed to be non-blocking by nature.

Read uncommitted would allow clients to access data which has not yetbeen committed by other transactions. This would be impractical in thedescribed framework and since the spirit of this isolation level is toallow the ability to provide non-blocking queries to the user and thisis already fulfilled, the framework automatically escalates this levelto READ COMMITTED.

If there is a guarantee that information which has been seen by a clientcan still be accessed later on (an assumption made in this proposalbased on the durability requirement of ACID), the value which has beenestablished as a reference value for a statement will have to be theminimum reference value for subsequent statements. Since moving up onthe group clock hierarchy means that the period above it might be open,in some cases the subsequent statement may have to wait for a groupclock to include the earlier reference value.

The computer executing the read process and the computers which serveinformation for the process are together called the participatingcomputers.

Any reference version is fit for statements running on a READ COMMITTEDisolation level, as long as it fulfils the following criteria:

1. The reference version must be at or before the version produced bythe following algorithm:

1. Take the lowest common group clock of the participating computers.

2. Take lowest value stored in the lists of known transitive closuresfrom the participating computers.

2. The reference version of each statement (which is non-first in atransaction) will either have to be equal to or be higher than thereference version of the previous statement. The reference versiondescribed this way is called the historical reference version and isstored on the database record. If the reference version identified bythe strategy is lower than the historical reference version, the processhas to wait until the identified computers receive notifications thatthe historical reference version (or a version associated with it) hasbeen recursively locked for all of the participating computers. Once ithas received this notification from each computer, it can retryexecuting the statement.

For an optimisation strategy on choosing which ancestor-version can bechosen, please see Comparing versions.

Since transitive closure takes some time (even after a transaction hasreceived its final version), there is a trade-off between:

-   -   newer information being present in the results—in this case,        there is a potential delay a client might have to suffer while        executing a statement; and    -   newer information missing from the results—in this case, the        client does not have to wait for the statement to return with        the results.

Below, two ends of the spectrum and a mid-way solution are presented.

1. In solution 1, the recently finalized variants will not be found bythe statement, but it is only necessary to wait for a consistent statein very rare circumstances.

2. In solution 2, the statement may have to wait in certain cases, butit is guaranteed to find the latest possible state that is guaranteed tobe consistent.

3. Solution 3 has a mix of both, to show a possible compromise betweensolutions 1 and 2.

Solution 1: Non-Waiting

The statement uses the versions which are at or before the lowestrecursively closed version of the lowest common group clock ofparticipating computers.

The data set for this reference version is guaranteed to be consistentwithout having to wait for anything, as long as the identified versionis higher or equal to the historical reference version stored in thedatabase record.

Solution 2: Up to Date

The statement identifies the last closed period on the computerprocessing the statement as its reference version. When the processidentifies a computer that needs to be queried for information, it waitsuntil the computer has received the recursively locked message for atleast the lowest common group clock's associated value. The resultingreference version is the lowest common group clock's version which isassociated with the version the statement identified at the start.

Solution 3: Middle Ground

The statement identifies the last closed period of the parent computerof the computer executing the statement, thus making sure that all thecomputers which belong to the same group as itself will have aconsistent data set. If the statement needs to query computers outsideits own group, it uses the method described in the “Up to date”strategy.

Which point on this spectrum is targeted by the implementing databaseshould be determined by the use case of the database and it can be aconfiguration setting.

This strategy works for SELECT FOR UPDATE statements or conditionalUPDATE statements also. In these cases, the statement has to do twopasses:

-   -   On the first pass, it identifies the variants it will need to        update, in the same way as if it was doing a SELECT.    -   On the second pass, it inserts its own variants by executing the        write process.

Since modifications are considered to be additional variants in thesystem and not direct changes to the record, finalized variants areimmutable. Since the write process will use the variants it identifiedin this step, the optimistic conflict resolution algorithm (described inchapter Transaction commit algorithm) will deal with any potentialparallel modifications from this point on.

Once the reference version has been identified, it replaces thecurrently stored historical reference version with the new one.

Repeatable Read

The framework automatically escalates this level to SERIALIZABLE, sincenew variants are versioned using the same method as updated or deletedones, and therefore it is not possible to make a distinction between thetwo.

Serializable

Clients look for information which has a lower or equal version to thelast known transitively closed period of the root group clock, or ifthat is found not to be transitively closed on a participating computer,the lowest one of the transitively closed versions (based on the lowestcommon group clock) found on the participating computers.

It is possible that a version which is transitively closed on onecomputer is not closed on another one. In these cases, even choosing thelowest version in a common ancestor group will only guarantee that thisfulfils the requirements for SERIALIZABLE for the statement, not thetransaction, since there is no guarantee that the transitively closedinformation already reached all the computers which hold information forlater statements in the same transaction. Theoretically, it is possiblefor a subsequent statement to choose an even lower version when applyingthe above rules. Technically, the only way to be sure that there can beno need to wait would be if the computer managing the transaction knewwhat versions are known to be transitively closed to all the othercomputers in the system.

This however, is a moot point. Realistically, the time it takes to sendthe transitive closure message (which must have already been sent forthe previous one compared to the one chosen based on the rule above) ismuch shorter than the time it takes for a remote message to be received,so in these extreme cases waiting before answering the message shouldcause only an insignificant delay.

Using this version means that the referenced set of information will notchange. This also means that there are more opportunities fortransactions to conflict than on the READ COMMITTED level.

Since constraints and indices are redundancies of the originaltransaction's data set, they will all either be chosen to be the nextversion or will be rejected together. The SQL standard only requiresthese values to be correct after commit, so the SQL standard still holdseven with the optimistic conflict resolution model, even if thisintroduces a change for developers when working with the database,compared to current database models.

The SQL standard specifies the following constraints. In the followingparagraphs, according to at least some embodiments, there is provided apossible strategy to implement them in the described system. Note thatthese are only examples and implementing databases can choose to providethese guarantees in any way they see fit.

Not Null, Check, Default

NOT NULL, DEFAULT and CHECK constraints can be checked when the recordis created or updated with the new values. If the CHECK constraintimplemented by the DB server allows values outside of the record to beexamined, every transaction that can have an affect on the checkconstraint has to update the constraint's record (so not the underlyingone, but one that would be updated by any transaction which could affectthe constraint), so that overlapping transactions will be guaranteed tonot be committed simultaneously.

Unique

A UNIQUE constraint can be implemented using a redundant INDEX table.This is a special kind of record, which can only be updated and nevercreated, even if no earlier record has been created yet for thespecified set of values. That way, if a transaction tries to create anew record which would conflict with another one on a set of values,they would both leave an updated variant for it. Due to this, at mostone of them will be chosen to be committed.

Primary Key

PRIMARY KEY is a combination of UNIQUE and NOT NULL.

Foreign Key

A foreign key is a collection of fields on a record (called thereferrer), which (collectively) uniquely identify a (potentiallydifferent) record (the referee). The unique aspect of the referee recordcan be dealt with using a UNIQUE index, as described above. If a recordis created in a table defined with the FOREIGN KEY constraint, it has tomake sure that a record with these attributes exists in the referredtable (or fail the transaction) and that this record is not updated byanother transaction until the transaction finishes. This can beguaranteed by issuing a SELECT FOR UPDATE for it using its uniqueidentifier. Once this is done, a record can be inserted to a redundantINDEX table, listing this FOREIGN KEY relationship between theserecords.

This record in the INDEX table can be deleted when the referrer recordis deleted, or updated to a different (using the mechanism describedabove) referee if any of the referring fields is modified.

Index

Since indices are redundancies of the original transaction's data set,they will all either be chosen to be the next version or will berejected together.

It is appreciated that certain features of the invention, which are, forclarity, described in the context of separate embodiments, may also beprovided in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, variousfeatures of the invention, which are, for brevity, described in thecontext of a single embodiment, may also be provided separately or inany suitable sub-combination.

Although the invention has been described in conjunction with specificembodiments thereof, it is evident that many alternatives, modificationsand variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art.Accordingly, it is intended to embrace all such alternatives,modifications and variations that fall within the spirit and broad scopeof the appended claims. All publications, patents and patentapplications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated intheir entirety by reference into the specification, to the same extentas if each individual publication, patent or patent application wasspecifically and individually indicated to be incorporated herein byreference. In addition, citation or identification of any reference inthis application shall not be construed as an admission that suchreference is available as prior art to the present invention.

1. A data store system, comprising a client and a plurality ofcomputational devices arranged in a hierarchy, each computational devicein said hierarchy comprising a database management service (DMS), thehierarchy including a parent computational device and a plurality ofchild devices, wherein read processes from and write processes to saidcomputational devices are non-blocking, wherein a reference version forthe data for said read processes and said write processes is determinedupon a request from the client to said DMS of one of said plurality ofcomputational devices arranged in said hierarchy, such that saidreference version is read in a read process or written in a writeprocess at a time of said request wherein said reference version isdetermined before a commitment process is performed, according tocommunication between said computational devices in said hierarchy;wherein a plurality of computational devices have different versions ofthe data; wherein said communication comprises communication fordetermining which computational devices have relevant versions of thedata for said write request wherein said write request is considered tobe successful only if said computational devices in said hierarchy agreeto an identical version of said data for said write request.
 2. Thesystem of claim 1, wherein said reference version comprises a timestamp.3. (canceled)
 4. The system of claim 2, wherein a child computationaldevice sends a value query message to said parent computational deviceincluding the name of the sending computer and a group clock valuecreated by said child computational device, and wherein said parentcomputational device processes the received message to return anassociated group clock value if the received group clock value alreadyhas an associated parent-clock value, and alternatively, to return thecurrently open period and to assign the open period's value to all childcomputational device clock values of said parent computational devicewhich are higher than the highest value already queried.
 5. The systemof claim 4, wherein one or more relevant versions of the data that areearlier versions are eliminated from being selected as said referenceversion.
 6. The system of claim 1, wherein the client requests a datatransformation and wherein before said data transformation is applied,said reference version is determined.
 7. (canceled)
 8. (canceled)
 9. Thesystem of claim 1, further comprising a plurality of persistencecomputational devices, for providing a backup of a state of the system.10. The system of claim 1, further comprising a plurality of actordevices for executing read and write operations for data; wherein saidplurality of actor devices comprises at least a parent device and aplurality of child devices.
 11. The system of claim 10, furthercomprising a client device for making a read request or a write request,or both, for data and a conductor device, for receiving said readrequest, said write request, or both for data and for forwarding saidread request, said write request, or both to said actor device.
 12. Thesystem of claim 11, wherein said conductor device processes are operatedby said target device.
 13. The system of claim 10, wherein each of saidactor devices operates a staging queue for publishing messages into andwherein said conductor devices receive said messages from said stagingqueues.
 14. The system of claim 13, wherein each of said conductordevices operates a public queue for publishing messages into and whereinsaid actor devices receive said messages from said public queues. 15.The system of claim 5, wherein said data is transferred as a pluralityof messages in said hierarchy of said parent device and said childdevices, wherein a round of message passing between said child devicesyields the lowest version of said message still in use within said childdevices, after which this version is sent to said parent device.
 16. Amethod for operating a non-blocking datastore with the system of claim1, comprising receiving a request from said client by said DMS of saidcomputational device in said hierarchy; determining which computationaldevices have relevant versions of the data for said request bytransferring said data for said request between said plurality of childdevices; determining said reference version according to a timestampfrom said relevant versions by determining a lowest version of said datafor said request and transferring said lowest version to said parentdevice; and performing said request from the client on said referenceversion at said parent device.
 17. (canceled)
 18. The method of claim16, further comprising eliminating any earlier versions of said data forsaid request according to said transferring said data for said requestbetween said plurality of child devices and said transferring saidlowest version to said parent device.
 19. A data store system,comprising a client and a plurality of computational devices, whereinread processes from and write processes to said computational devicesare non-blocking in respect to each other, wherein a plurality of writeprocesses occur with regard to a shared data item or set of data items,wherein an order is established between any two of said plurality ofwrite processes such that at least one write process is canceled.
 20. Adistributed data store system, comprising a client and a plurality ofcomputational devices, wherein read processes from and write processesto said computational devices are non-blocking in respect to each other,wherein a plurality of write processes occur with regard to a shareddata item or set of data items, wherein at least one write process iscanceled such that only one write process operates on said shared dataitem or set of data items; wherein a global order is determined betweenany plurality of versions of said shared data item or set of data items.21. A plurality of computational devices arranged in a hierarchy,comprising a parent computational device and a plurality of childcomputational devices, each of said parent device and said childcomputational devices comprising a clock, in which timestamps arecreated on each group of child devices independently from the parentdevice, so that advancing of the clocks of the child devices is notblocked by either the parent device or other child devices, and in whichany two timestamps can be deterministically compared with each other.22. The system of claim 21, wherein a plurality of different versions ofdata are available and wherein a relevant version of the data isdetermined by establishing a timestamp and eliminating later versions.23. The system of claim 1, wherein said client is implemented as aclient computational device, and wherein each of said computationaldevices comprises a processor and a memory, wherein instructions arestored on said memory and are executed by said processor, wherein aclient memory on said client computational device stores a plurality ofinstructions for sending a data request and for receiving data back inresponse to said request for execution by a client processor on saidclient computational device; and wherein said plurality of computationaldevices arranged in said hierarchy each comprise a memory for storing aplurality of instructions for performing said read and write processesby a processor on each computational device of said hierarchy.
 24. Thesystem of claim 23, wherein each of said processors is configured toperform a defined set of basic operations in response to receiving acorresponding basic instruction selected from a defined nativeinstruction set of codes; said client computational device comprising afirst set of machine codes stored in the client memory and selected fromthe native instruction set for receiving an instruction to perform aread or write process for a unit of data, a second set of machine codesstored in the memory of each of said hierarchical computational devicesand selected from the native instruction set for processing said read orwrite process; and a third set of machine codes stored in the memory ofeach of said hierarchical computational devices and selected from thenative instruction set for performing said read or write process.